How To Start or Stop Any Habit
Reviewed By: Kelley Johnson, LCSW
Written By: Daniel Mark Hipp
Introduction to Goal Driven Behavior
What is Operant Conditioning?
A lot of behavior is goal driven. The reward is taken into account in deciding whether or not we are going to act.
Operant conditioning means that it “operates on the environment to produce a consequence” (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk, 2013, p. 223). Although the word consequence holds a negative connotation, in the world of behavior, consequences can be rewarding or punishing.
It should be obvious then that as someone who cares for themself, it is in one’s own self interest to maximize rewards while minimizing punishments. That is the law of effect.
What is the Difference Between Reinforcement and Punishment?
The consequences are core to the decision of repeating behaviors. If we view the consequence of a behavior as rewarding, we refer to this consequence as a reinforcer. Reinforcers can be strong or weak, but they ultimately leave the individual with an overall positive experience.
When the consequence of a behavior feels like we got the short end of the stick, we are ultimately being punished for engaging in the behavior. The punishment could range from slightly annoying to downright unpleasant, but they leave you with an overall negative experience.
It should be the case that positive experiences make you want to repeat behaviors in the future while negative experiences make you want to avoid behaviors in the future. When we use reinforcement and punishment in counseling, it refers solely to the subject’s willingness to repeat the behavior in the future (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk, 2013).
What is a Discriminative Stimulus?
Discriminative stimuli can predict rewards, neutrals, and punishments. Imagine that you were a child asking a sibling, parent, and grandparent separately if you can have a cookie. Maybe the parent punishes you, the sibling is indifferent, and your grandparents hand a cookie over to you excitedly. Which family member is there affects whether you will even bother asking.
4 Different Ways to Punish or Reinforce
There are 4 types of reinforcement. They are built along 2 dimensions.
Punishment or Reinforcement
The first dimension is Punishment or Reinforcement.
Positive or Negative
The second dimension is Positive or Negative. If we are giving something to someone, it is considered to be positive, regardless of whether or not it is a punishment or reward.
If we are taking something away from someone, it is considered to be negative, regardless of whether or not it is a punishment or reward.
I created a 2 x 2 grid in order to illustrate the 4 contingencies of operant conditioning.
The following are definitions and examples of the 4 different types.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement means that as a result of the behavior, the individual is rewarded by giving them something that they like.
Positive reinforcement is the classic format people use to win others over. The person engaging in the behavior is being rewarded with something they want so they keep doing it. This could be affection from a loved one, a raise at work, or junk food.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement means that as a result of the behavior, the individual is rewarded by taking away something that they do not like.
Negative reinforcement is a bit of a weirder one to provide examples for as compared to positive reinforcement. If you were to have a headache and I gave you ibuprofen, that would be negative reinforcement since I have taken away your headache. It would also be positive reinforcement because I gave you ibuprofen, which in itself isn’t a reward, but the effect of having your headache disappear is reinforcing.
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment means that as a result of the behavior, the individual is punished by giving them something that they do not like.
Positive punishment is making someone do something that they do not like. This can be teenagers (or spouses) being assigned household chores and/or errands. This could be additional responsibilities in the workplace after being placed on formal disciplinary action for improvement in your position.
This could be going to jail, although we could interpret this scenario as a negative punishment as well since you will have to give up most of the things you do like while in jail.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment means that as a result of the behavior, the individual is punished by taking away something that they do like.
Negative punishment is probably one of the most common forms for attempts at changing behavior. You can imagine the scene of a parent taking away something that their child is looking forward to using. This could be privilege to drive the car, using social media, or playing video games.
How to Get The Most Out of Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement can be adjusted along four different dimensions. Each dimension plays a role in how effective the reinforcement is in generating repeat behavior.
How much time between reinforcement?
The first dimension is time. If a reinforcer is “more immediate … the stronger its effects [will be] on behavior” (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk, 2013).
Is the reward Innately Reinforcing?
The second dimension is whether the reinforcer is innately reinforcing. Primary reinforcers, the ones with innate value, are more effective for operant conditioning than secondary reinforcers. Examples include things you enjoy such as water, shelter, sex, and food.
Rewards and Consequences
The third dimension is whether the behavior itself is the reward or whether the consequence of the behavior is the reward. We say that activities which are enjoyed for the sake of the activity have intrinsic value.
Material rewards or external results are said to have extrinsic value.
Natural and Contrived Reinforcers
The fourth dimension is whether the reinforcer is natural or contrived. If you sell something and you get a commission, that is a natural reinforcer.
A contrived reinforcer does not live outside of the immediate desire for changing a behavior. Providing a reward that is not a natural occurrence in order to induce behavioral change is called a contrived reinforcer. Getting verbal praise for your actions is an example of a contrived reinforcer.
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